![]() We review these characteristics and the related empirical findings in the following sections. This scarcity of research may have to do with certain characteristics of FSs. In the FS literature, there is a severe lack of studies gauging the development of L2 formulaic knowledge. Based on the patterns of processing accuracy, processing speed, and processing strategies, we attempted to investigate the development of L2 learners’ formulaic knowledge as well as the underlying mechanisms that may impact the development. This study set out to fill the gap by comparing how advanced learners (ALs), super-advanced learners (SLs), and NSs process two types of Chinese FSs. Some corpus-based studies (e.g., Qi and Ding, 2011 Staples et al., 2013) focused on portraying the change of FS use by learners at different proficiency levels, but did not tap into learners’ cognitive processes that may regulate such change. As such, mastering FSs can lead to the development of overall language proficiency ( Weinert, 1995 Wray, 2000).ĭespite the general acknowledgment of the importance of learning formulaic knowledge, little is known about how formulaic knowledge develops as learners’ proficiency increases. These findings led to the assumption that learning FSs can facilitate language comprehension and production ( Boers et al., 2006 Lindstromberg and Boers, 2008 Taguchi et al., 2013 Yan, 2020 Saito and Liu, 2021). Hence, learning FSs can make communication more sophisticated and efficient ( Schmitt and Carter, 2004 Tang and Taguchi, 2021). Functional linguistic research indicates that FSs are semantically integral, which allows for the relatively complex meaning and function to be compacted into somewhat simple sequences. The psycholinguistic research shows that native speakers (NSs) process FSs more efficiently than they process rule-generated phrases (e.g., Jiang and Nekrasova, 2007 Siyanova-Chanturia et al., 2011), suggesting that FSs are likely to be prestored and retrieved as whole units directly from long-term memory. Corpus linguistic research indicates that a small class of FSs covers a fairly large portion of spoken and written texts this ubiquity underscores the importance of FSs in the use of language (e.g., Oppenheim, 2000 Bestgen, 2017). This claim has been supported by corpus linguistic, psycholinguistic, and functional linguistic research ( Schmitt, 2010 Myles and Cordier, 2017). In the last two decades, mounting evidence has suggested that overall second language (L2) proficiency can be improved by acquiring formulaic sequences (FSs), which are multiword expressions that frequently recur as a whole in language use ( Biber and Conrad, 1999 Wray, 2000 Cortes, 2015 Wood, 2019). (2020b) pointed out that it is important to measure students’ learning outcomes and to gauge the underlying mechanisms that impact the development of students’ language proficiency. Specifically for research on Chinese as a second or foreign language (CSL/CFL), Gong et al. In second language acquisition (SLA), the two primary goals are to identify the nature of learners’ linguistic knowledge and to provide accounts for how this knowledge transforms over time ( Ellis, 2005 Bowles, 2011). The findings provide implications for measuring and teaching Chinese formulaic knowledge at the higher-than-advanced stage. The overall findings denote that second language learners’ formulaic knowledge can evolve beyond the lexical plateau as learners move from the advanced to a higher proficiency level, but the productive idiom knowledge can be a long-term problem. Fourth, all three groups exhibited poorer productive idiom knowledge than productive non-idiom knowledge. Third, learners’ use of processing strategies did not change much as proficiency rose and demonstrated a categorical difference from NSs. ![]() Second, learners’ idiom processing ability was generally lower than that of non-idiom processing ability, but they demonstrated an improving trend as their proficiency level increased. ![]() First, learners’ processing accuracy and speed increased along with their proficiency. Four processing patterns emerged from the analyses of the datasets. Using two phrase acceptability judgment tasks with and without think-aloud protocols, we collected data on participants’ processing accuracy, processing speed, and processing strategies of reading the two types of FSs. The study examined the development of Chinese as a second language learners’ formulaic knowledge through comparing the processing of Chinese idioms versus non-idiomatic formulaic sequences (FSs) by advanced-level learners (ALs), super-advanced learners (SLs), and native speakers (NSs). 3Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macao, Macao SAR, China.2Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Macau, Macao, Macao SAR, China.1Department of Chinese (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China.
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